VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amount for good health. They can't be made within the body, so must be present in diet.If a given vitamin is lacking, a characteristic set of symptoms will developed, known as deficiency disease. Provitamins, closely relted precursors of some vitamins, may also occur in diet. No single food can supply all the vitamins we require.

Vitamins are classified into fat soluble and watere soluble forms.In humans, fat soluble vitamins are A, D, E and K and are all stored in liver, while all water soluble (Vitamin B complex and C) vitamins re converted to coenzymes, accountig for the small amounts needed.

Vitamins are extremly complex chemical substances. In general none of the vitamins can be formed in the body. Exception to this, are the formation of vitamins A from the precursor carotene; the formation of vitamin D by the action of UV light of sun on the skin, and the formation of vitamins K by the symbiotic bacteria of the intestine. Humans cannot manufacture vitamin C.

Vitamin A 11-cis-retinol, the lipid prosthetic group of the protein opsin in visual purple. It is fat soluble vitamin formed in the body from precursors, yellow pigments of plants (alpha, beta and gamma carotene). It is essential for normal growth and development, the integrity of epithelial tissues and for the normal tooth and bone development. It is stored in the liver. Its deficiency affects all the tissues, but the eyes are most reafily affected. Youngs, lacking a liver store of this vitamin are most affected by defiency, which cuses Xerophthalmia (dry eyes)

Vitamin B-comples It is a group of water-soluble vitamins.

vitamin B₁ (aneurine or thimin) ffects growth and carbohydrate metabolism. It prevents beri-beri disease.

VItamin B₂ (Riboflavin)

VItamin B₆ (Pyridoxine), found in rice , bran and yeast

Vitamin B₃ (NIacin, Nicotinic acid) prevents Pellagra.

VItamin B₅ (Pantothenic acid)

VItamin B₁₂ (Cyanocobalamin)

Vitamin C(Ascorbic acid) It is necessary for the formation of intercellular substance of connective tissue and essential in maintenance of integrity of intercellulr cement in many tissues, especially capillary walls. Deficiency leads to scurvy disease. This vitamins is abudant in citrus fruits. Hydrolysis of its lactone ring destroys its vitamins activity, as often occurs in cooking. Deficiency also causes poor wound healing.

Vitamin D It iws small group of fat soluble vitamin and deficiency causes rickets. It is also synthesized in the skin under ultravoilet light. One form (D₂, ergocalciferol) derives fropm provitamin ergosterol; another (D₃, cholecalciferol) derives from provitamin 7-dehydrocholesterol. People receiving in sufficient sunlight can supplement their vitamin D levels by eating liver, particularly fish-liver oil. The main circulating form of vitamin D, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol is very active and derived by modification of cholecalciferol in the liver. This (D) promotes uptake of calcium ions in the ileum and is required for calcification of bones and teeth.

Vitamin E (Trocopherol) It is group of fat-soluble vitamin, obtained principally from plant materials (seed, oil) but also found in diry products. It is an essential nutrient for humans. Vecause of the amount of vitamin present in foods, its deficiency is absent in general population. They seem to prevent oxidation of highly unsaturated ftty acids in presence of molecular oxygen.

Vitamin K It is an antihaemorrhagic factor whose activity is associated with compounds derived from naphthoquinone. It is fat-soluble vitamin (K₁ and K₂) required for synthesis of a substance and required for prothrombin production. Vitamin K ids blood coagulation and is necessary for formation of prothrombin. Its deficiency prolongs blood clotting time and causes haemorrhages. It is produced by many plants (K₁) and by micro-organisms (K₂), including those in human gut.

Avitaminosis

1. Vitamin antiberiberi Thiamine (B₁)

2. Vitamin antidermattis Vitamin B₆

3. Vitamin antihaemorrhagic Vitamin K

4. Vitamin anti-infective Vitamin A

5. Vitamin antineuritic Thimine (B₁)

6. Vitamin antipellagra Nicotinamide

7. Vitamin antirachitic Vitamin D group

8. Vitamin antiscorbutic Vitamin C

9. Vitamin antixepthalmic Vitamin A

10. Vitamin coagulation Vitamin K

11. Vitamin antioxidant Vitamin E, Vitamin C and betacaotene

MINERALS

Minerals are the organic compounds and needed for a wide range of functions. Few minerals are needed in only trace amounts for good health and these are known as trace elements. Minerals are essential constituents of all cells. They form the greater portion of hard parts of the body (bone, teeth etc). These are essential components of respiratory pigments, enzymes and enzyme systems. They regulate the permeability of cell membrnes and capillaries; regulate the excitibility of muscular and nervous tissue. They are necessary for maintainance of proper acid-bse balance nd are essential constituents of secrections of glnds. They play and important role in water metabolism and regulation of blood volume. Mineral salts and water are excreted daily from the body and must be replaced through the food intake.

Three new planets outside solar system

Two groups of astronomers have taken the first pictures of planets going around other stars. The achievement, the result of years of effort on improved observational techniques and better data analysis, presages more such discoveries and will open the door to new investigations and discoveries of what planets are and how they came to be formed. Professor C. Marois is the leader of a team that recorded three planets circling a star known as HR 8799 that is 130 light years away in the constellation Pegasus. The other team, led by Professor Paul Kalas of California University, found a planet orbiting the star Fomalhaut, 25 light years away from earth, in the constellation Piscis Austrinus.

The planets appear as fuzzy dots that move slightly around their star from exposure to exposure. Astronomers who have seen the images agreed these looked like the real things. More than 300 so-called extra-solar planets have been found circling distant stars, making their discovery the hottest growing field in astronomy.

The observations have been made mostly indirectly, by lips in straight as planets cross in front of their home star or by wobbles they induce. Astronomers being astronomers, they want actually to see these worlds, but a few, recent claims of direct observations, have been made. The new planetary systems are anchored by young bright stars more massive than our own sun and swaddled in large discs of dust, the raw material of worlds. The three planets obtaining HR 8799 are roughly ten, nine and six times the mass of Jupiter and orbiting their star in periods of 450, 180 and100 years, respectively, all counterclockwise.

Small bat

Small bat

Its scientific name is Rhinolophus and is modified for aerial mode of life and shows Volant adaptation. They are nocturnal, insectivorous and viviparous. They are capable to fly because skin on lateral sides extends into ptagia (wings) which are supported by digits of forelimbs (clawed). There body is covered with soft fur with steel grey colour. They have short snout and nose leaf are present. Pinnae are large and often provided with flaps, serving as tactile organs and also in making the power of hearing more acute. There’s eyes are small and the vision is week as the visual rods and poorly developed. There’s tail is included in the inter-femoral. Only the thumbs of first digits is clawed in the forelimbs. Hind limbs are week and have five clawed digits. They are gregarious, living in colonies of thousands. They produce ultrasonic sound waves, which after striking on the solid objects are reflected back and are picked up by their ears and help in guiding flight. During the day, they hang by hind claws on the branches of trees or crevices of rocks, in caves or building, keeping the head downwards. Teeth heterodont and thecodont with dental formula ½, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3. Molars have cusped crowns with transverse grooves.

Sixth Sense is Developed

Sixth Sense is Developed

Scientists of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have created a probable ‘sixth sense’ devise powered by commercial products that can seamlessly channel internet information into daily routines. The device can turn any surface into a touch screen for computing, controlled by simple hand gestures.

The gadget can even take photographs if a user frames a scene with his or her hands or project a watch face with the proper time on a wrist if the user makes a circle there with a finger cobbled a web camera, a battery-powered projector and a mobile into a gizma that can be worn like jewellery. Signals from the camera and projector are relayed to smart phones with internet connections.

“Other than letting some of you live out your fantasy, it can really let you connect as a sixth sense devise with whatever is in front of you”, said team leader Professor Patty Maes. The research team unveiled the futuristic gadget made from store bought components. The device can recognize items in store-shelves, retrieving and projecting information about products or even providing quick signals to let users know which choices suit their tastes.

The gadget can look at an Aeroplane ticket and let the user know whether the flight is on time, or recognize books in book store and then project reviews or author information from the internet onto lank pages.

Scientists Discovered 22 Distant Galaxies

Scientists Discovered 22 Distant Galaxies

A team of American and Japanese scientists have discovered 22 extremely distant galaxies which may have been born 787 million years after the big bang. Researchers at Corinegie Observatories concluded the broadest survey to data of galaxies from about 800 million years after the big ban. They confirmed the age of one of the galaxies by hydrogen signature at 787 million years past the big bang. Since all the galaxies were found using the same dropout technique, they are likely to be of the same age.

Viewed through the world’s most powerful telescopes, the discovery is the first observation of such structure in the distant universe providing further insight. The study is funded by NASA.

Robots Armies to Visit Alien Worlds

Robots Armies to Visit Alien Worlds

Scientists are on the track to create robots that command other robots, a development that will make it possible to explore the alien worlds by armies of flying, driving and sailing humanoids. Professor Wolfgang Fink of the California Institute of Technology is the leader of this research team which is developing software that would let a robotic explore act independently and as part of a team.

Professor Fank says,” We are on the brink of a great paradigm shift in planetary exploration, and the next round of robotic explorers will be nothing like what we see today.”

Under this plan, the robotic airships and satellites will fly above the distant world, commanding squadrons of wheeled rovers and floating robot boats, a development that will transform planetary exploration. The robot would select priorities for exploration and anticipate and handle problems on thir own. It will be possible that an entire fleet of robots will be autonomously commanded at once.

“This armada of robots will be our eyes, ears, arms and legs in space. In the air and on the ground, capable of responding to their environment without us, to explore and embrace the unknown. It is a sort of like commanding a small army of robots operating in space”, says Professor Fink

Protoplasm

Protoplasm

Protoplasm (Greek, proto=first; plasma=organization) is the basic living substance of the cell. J.E.Purkinje and Hugo von Mohl proposed the name protoplasm in 1839. It is associated with different metabolic processes of the cell.

Physical properties

It is translucent jelly like substance. In physical form it may be granular, alveolar, fibrillar or reticular. Protoplasm may exist in sol or in a gel state. Sol can stream easily and gel is more viscid. Sol can change to gel condition under certain conditions and gel can transform into sol. In sol state the minute particles present in protoplasm can move freely and strike each other and move independently. This is called Brownian movement after its discoverer Robert Brown (1827). In gel condition these movements are not found

According to modern scientists protoplasm is a colloidal substance with water as the continuous phase and fatty substances, carbohydrates, crystals, ions forming the dispersed phase. Thus colloid is a mixture in which large or small but invisible particles (0.0001-0.000001 mm) are suspended in a liquid medium.

If the particles are evenly distributed in a liquid medium and the mixture can flow easily it is called sol state. Thus the Brownian movement and continuous suspension medium (liquid medium) are characteristics of sol state. If the particles are arranged in a net work and the mixture does not flow the colloid is called to be in gel state.

If the soluble substance is solid in nature it is called colloidal suspension and if the soluble substance is liquid it is called colloidal emulsion.

Chemical properties

Protoplasm contains different elements. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen form 95% of protoplasm and the rest is formed by phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, sulphur, sodium, fluorine, calcium, magnesium and iron. Apart from these zinc, silicon, manganese, iodine, nickel etc. are present as a trace elements. These are not present as free state but are present in the form of organic or inorganic compounds. About 60-70% of protoplasm is inorganic part including water, dissolved gases and inorganic salts. The rest 30-40% is formed by organic part including proteins, fats, carbohydrates, enzymes and nucleic acids.

% of different chemical elements present in protoplasm.

Oxygen 63.00%

Carbon 20.00%

Hydrogen 10.00%

Nitrogen 02.50%

Calcium 02.50%

Phosphorus 01.14%

Potassium 00.11%

Sulphur 00.14%

Chlorine 00.10%

Fluorine 00.10%

Sodium 00.10%

Magnesium 00.07%

Iron 00.01%

Zinc trace

Silicon trace

Manganese trace

Iodine trace

Nickel trace

% of different compounds present in protoplasm

Inorganic

Water 80.00%

Inorganic salts 01.00%

Organic

Proteins 12.00%

Fats 30.00%

Carbohydrates 01.00%

Nucleic acids 02.00%

Steroids 00.50%

Other substances 00.50%

Inorganic compound

(i) Water. It is the main constitute of protoplasm and varies between 60-90% in different animals

(ii) Gas. Protoplasm uses O₂ and gives out CO_2.

(iii) Inorganic salts. Chlorine, phosphate, carbonate and sulphate of Na, K, Ca, Mg and Fe are present. For coagulation of blood Ca is needed. Mg, Ca and phosphorous are used for building bones. Fe is needed to form haemoglobin. Chloride is found in blood tissue-fluid.

Organic compound

(i) Protein (about 12-14% of protoplasm). C, H, O and N are present in protein. Sulphur, phosphorus, magnesium, iron and iodine are also present in it. These form amino-acids which combine to form protein. Protein molecules are larger than fat and carbohydrate molecules. Protein can be converted into carbohydrate. Carbohydrates into fat and fat into carbohydrate in the body. Every species has special type of protein

(ii) Carbohydrate. This contains C, H and O. sugar and starch are well known carbohydrates. Energy is obtained from sugar. Due to the oxidation of sugar CO₂ and energy are liberated. Energy is used by the animal and CO₂ is expelled out.

C₆H₁₂O₆ (sugar)+6CO₂=6H₂O+6CO₂+energy

Carbohydrates cannot be converted into proteins in the body

(iii) Fat. It is also formed by C, H, and O. from fatty acids and glycerol also energy is obtained. Fats are insoluble in water but soluble in benzene ether and petrol. It cannot be converted into protein in the body. In cell fat is stored as a small droplets which are used during need. In fat less oxygen is present in proportion to carbon and hydrogen of carbohydrate and fat.

(iv) Enzyme. Different kinds of enzymes are found in protoplasm which act as catalysts to accelerate or diminish the rate of chemical processes within the cell. They are unaltered after the reaction.

(v) Nucleic acids. Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) is found in nucleus and ribonucleic acids (RNA) in cytoplasm. These are formed by sugar, phosphorous and nitrogenous purine and pyramidine bases.

Thus it is found that the elements are present in the form of compounds. The inorganic compounds are mainly water and salts. The organic compounds are mainly protein fat, carbohydrate, nucleic acids etc.z